The Economy of the Animal Kingdom, Considered Anatomically, Physically, and Philosophically

By Emanuel Swedenborg, late Member of the House of Nobles in the Royal Diet of Sweden; Assessor of the Royal Metallic College of Sweden; Fellow of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Upsala, and of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Stockholm; Corresponding Member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg.

Translated from the Latin by the Rev. Augustus Clissold, M.A.

Paucis natus est. Qui populum aetatis sucae: multa annorum millia, multa populorum supervenient: ad illa respice, etiamsi omnibus tecum viventibus silentium ... [aliqua causa] indixerit: venient, qui sine offensa, sine gratia judicent. (SENECA, Epist. 79.)

Contents of First Volume (Part I.)

Introduction 1

Chapter I. The Composition and Genuine Essence of the Blood. 29

Chapter II. The Arteries and Veins, their Tunics, and the Circulation of the Blood. 116

Chapter III. On the Formation of the Chick in the Egg, and on the Arteries, Veins, and Rudiments of the Heart. 241

Chapter IV. On the Circulation of the Blood in the Foetus; and on the Foramen Ovale and Ductus Arteriosus belonging to the Heart in Embryos and Infants. 316

Chapter V. The Heart of the Turtle. 372

Chapter VI. The peculiar Arteries and Veins of the Heart, and the Coronary Vessels. 387

Chapter VII. The Motion of the Adult Heart. 460

Contents Of Volume Two (Part II.)

Chapter I. On the Motion of the Brain; showing that its Animation is coincident with the Respiration of the Lungs. 653

Chapter II. The Cortical Substance of the Brain specifically. 721

Chapter III. The Human Soul. 860

Index of Authors, List of Unverified Citations, Bibliographical Notices of Authors 1020

Appendix

387. CHAPTER VI. THE PECULIAR ARTERIES AND VEINS OF THE HEART, AND THE CORONARY VESSELS.

LANCISI. "It is to be observed in the first place, that the coronary artery, which arises from the aorta within the pericardium, most generally by two branches, very rarely by three, or by one (if by one, it immediately afterwards divides into two), is so placed as to form an acute angle with the section of the aorta that lies between it and the heart; and therefore it may perhaps be thought, -as the direction of the motion of the blood propelled by the systole of the heart, is not in the same line with the direction of the coronary arteries, but on the contrary forms so acute an angle with them, that only a very small quantity of the stream can flow at that time, and in that direction, into the coronary arteries. But on the contrary, and company, and company.... It should by no means be overlooked, that of the branches of the coronary arteries (with the exception of those that nature dispenses to the adipose follicles of the heart, and to the trunks of the great arteries and veins), the first are distributed to the auricles, and the subsequent branches to the ventricles: consequently the passage of the blood running through the coronary twigs from the aorta to the auricles, is a little shorter than that of the blood running to the ventricles.... It is to be observed that the coronary arteries, by their larger branches, which form wonderful anastomoses with each other, creep over the external surface of the heart, running partly like a crown about its base, and partly in straight furrows as it were from the base to the apex; but that they do not penetrate to the inner muscular substance of the heart except by the minutest twigs. It seems also worthy of remark, that the larger branches, which occupy the external surface of the heart, are covered throughout their course with adipose follicles and little bands; and thus are extremely lax and soft, and if slit up longitudinally with the scissors, they are found to be marked on the inside by minute irregular rugae; and on this account admit of being easily distended and enlarged both in length and breadth ... again it is to be observed, that the coronary arteries have no valves at their immissaries; ¹ although Thomas Bartholin, because he happened to meet with valves once or twice (as I myself likewise have done), presumes that they are to be found always. And indeed arteries of this kind require no valvular barriers to prevent the blood from regurgitating into the aorta; since the constant pressure and struggle of the blood in the aorta, is powerful enough on every side effectually to counteract the return of the blood from the mouths of the coronary arteries. But this does not bold in the lesser branches of the coronaries, which dip deeply into the muscular substance of the heart and auricles; for here we find little sphincters and valves beautifully and abundantly distributed. (De Motu Cordis, and company, lib. i., prop. 39.) After attempting in vain by the introduction of a probe, and by other means, to find any valves either in the orifices, or the larger branches, of the coronary arteries, it occurred to us to examine some of the twigs proceeding from them, after having previously opened them with a lancet. Into these then we inserted a bristle, and on pushing it in the direction of the larger branches, we met with an obstruction. In order to prove to ocular demonstration what it was that impeded the further progress of the bristle, and prevented its entrance along the cavity of the branches, and to ascertain whether it was a valve, or anything else, we proceeded with extreme care ... to separate the coronary arteries from the substance of the heart, together with the segment of the aorta from which they issued. These we detached with their large, lesser, and least and most delicate branches, to as great an extent as we could; and we then placed the whole tree of vessels in a basin of water. Having done this, we observed all the extreme vessels, both by reason of their minuteness and of the air they enclosed, spread about in every direction, and floating on the water, so as to present a beautiful appearance, like portions of windweed, anise, or fennel; and we remarked both in the larger and lesser series of tubes a variety of phenomena. We observed first, that the great stems of the coronary arteries, which surround the base of the heart, and reach to its apex, floated in a spiral order and with a spiral motion, and after they were taken out of the water, they could be extended to a much greater length than when they adhered to the heart. On injecting mercury into the coronary artery, it was curious to see the larger branches become corrugated, and the smaller strangulated, as if by nervous threads....When we slit up the trunks of the coronary arteries, and the larger branches proceeding from them, we found the interior membrane much whiter and thicker than in the other arteries (in which the arachnoid membrane is plainly seen); and so much softer, than when we attempted to pull it off, it followed the fingers with more facility than in the case of any other artery. It appeared that this was the case, because nowhere in the body are the arteries placed in greater and more violent motion than in the heart; for which reason the external membrane, as well as the intermediate muscular membrane, falling as they do, so often and so strongly, into contraction and distraction, are in a manner disjoined and separated from the internal membrane; while the innermost membrane runs into numerous rugae, which in some measure perform the office of valves, and pre vent the return of the blood into the aorta, as well as its reaction or resistance a tergo. We observed branches proceeding from the trunks of the coronary arteries, and twigs from the branches, proportionally more numerous and abundant than in the arteries of any other muscle; and not without reason, for since the muscular planes and fascise are far more abundant is the heart than in any other muscle, it is necessary that each line and curve thereof, each bundle, and each fibre, should be tracked by little arteries of its own. We carefully noted the skill of nature in placing at the mouths of each of the larger coronary arteries, where they divided into the smaller, a kind of circular margin or border, and as it were a delicate sphincter.... But at the little mouths of the lesser and least arteries that are distributed through, and buried within, one or other of the muscular planes, we saw valves opposed, which in fact prevented the regress of the blood from the lesser arteries into the larger. This arrangement seems to me to conduce in a remarkable way to the systole of the heart. For when its fleshy fibres begin to be stretched, they are at the same time increased in bulk;... and hence we find that water injected into the coronary arteries, and diffused through the substance of the heart, never runs back even when the heart is compressed; the contrary being the case in the veins, through the mouths of which any liquid that is thrown in, soon regurgitates. But in order to see these valves clearly, we must select the small arteries, and introduce into them a fine probe, or a bristle, gently driving it the wrong way of the vessels, that is, towards the larger branches; for near each of the little mouths that open towards the trunks, we shall observe even with the naked eye, that the membranes of the valves are raised, and the point of the probe or bristle impeded and entangled. But if we still push on the probe, we shall find it clothed and covered with the membrane of the valve, which is thus expanded by force. All these appearances are best seen in the heart of the horse;... for here the valves that hinder the passage of the probe, are raised in every one of the sections or origins of the smaller trunks, until they are either ruptured by force, or else opening out in a contrary direction, give way and sheathe the probe. In like manner small sphincters are here and there clearly observed in the twigs of the little arteries, like little knots, which are seen even in the last ramifications, so far as the microscope will enable us to follow them. (Ibid., prop. 40.) Nature is so variable and inconstant in locating the mouths of the coronary arteries, that a few dissections only, especially if made in the human subject, are sufficient to present us with many varieties.... In those persons who during life had a strong pulse, we generally found the orifices above the margins of the valves: in those who had a moderate pulse, we observed them in the confines of the valves, or one orifice placed above [the valves], and the other below, as Morgagni also has noticed: while in those who had had a small pulse, and particularly in women, we found them for the most part opening behind the margins of the valves. We have observed something similar, but much more evidently, in brutes;... for instance, in horses, in which we have seen the orifices situated more frequently above than below the margins.... In dogs also these orifices open a little above the margins, and in our numerous experiments upon these animals, we have only once or twice found the same immissaries on a level with the borders of the valves; the animals in these cases being gentle of temper and domestic. In slow footed, languid animals, such as oxen and sheep, we saw the orifices buried below the margins of the valves. But whether any, and what, variety, in the motion and how of the blood through the coronary arteries, is produced by the variety of situation in the orifices, is a question of no very easy solution....The membranes of these valves are tendineo-muscular, movable, and in great part free, but nevertheless attached to, and continuous with, the base of the heart, and in three places continuous with the parietes of the great artery. Thus when the heart falls into systole, these membranes, as parts of it, are necessarily s little contracted, and become shorter, as far as they can, both in length and breadth, and company.... In the vivisection of mastiffs (which have the orifices of the coronaries above the margins of the valves), when the thorax is opened and the pericardium divided, we have seen the coronary artery pulsating at the same time with the sorts, both being expanded and constricted simultaneously; and in like manner when punctured, the jet of blood from both, and the interval between the jets, was synchronous. But in sheep, which have the immissaries of the coronary arteries pieced under the valves, we saw the sorts begin its diastole somewhat before the coronary artery, but both completed the diastole at the same time. (Ibid., prop. 41.)

Footnotes:

1020. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES OF AUTHORS CITED IN "THE ECONOMY OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM".

THE remarks prefixed to the corresponding "Notices" in the "Animal Kingdom," Vol. II., p. 698, may be repeated here. When an author is mentioned in those "Notices," his name alone is given in the present account, with a reference to the "Animal Kingdom;" or such of his works as come under our plan, and are cited in the "Economy" and not in the "Animal Kingdom," are specified.

ARISTOTLE, "the chief philosopher of the Gentiles" (Swedenborg, Econ. A. K., Vol. II., p. 240), born at Stagira, B. C. 884, died at Chalcis, B. C. 822. The edition of Aristotle made use of in the present translation, is that of Du Val, 4 vols., folio, Paris, 1654. The annexed bibliographical account is borrowed from the article "Aristotle" (by F. A. Trendelenburg, translated by George Long), in the "Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge."

"The following are the most important editions of all the works of Aristotle:

"The Editio Princeps, which has the value of a MS., is the Aldine, called Aldina Major, printed at Venice, by Aldus Manutins, 1496, 1498, 5 vols. fol. It is well printed, and was scarce even in the time of Erasmus. Certain small variations show that this edition was printed twice (Dr. Postolaka, in the Zeitschrift Wiener Jahrboecher, 1831, 26 Heft). The edition of Basle contains the emendations of Simon Grynaenus, and the preface of Erasmus; Basle, 1631, fol. The second Basle edition belongs to the year 1639; and the third, on which both Conrad Gesner and Grynceus were employed, to 1650. The Aldina Minor was edited by J. B. Camotius, whence it is else called Camotiana, Venice, 155-163, 6 vols. 8 vo.

"The Frankfort edition by F. Sylburg has some critical notes and indexes; it is well printed, and justly valued; Frankfort, 1684, 1587, 11 vols. 4 to. The edition of Isaac Cassaubon, besides some various readings and emendations printed on the margin, contains the Latin translation by several hands; Lyons, 1690, fol., Geneva, 1605, fol. The edition of Du Val contains the Latin version; Paris, 1619 and 1629, 2 vols. fol.; 1639, 4 vols. fol. Du Val was physician and councillor to Louis XIII. of France. He has added a view of the Peripatetic philosophy, and of the writings of Aristotle. The edition of Buhle contains valuable literary notices in the first volume; but it was never finished. Only five volumes 8 vo. appeared; Deux Ponts, 1791-1800.

"The most important edition for the text of Aristotle is that of Immanuel Bekker or of the Berlin Academy, Berlin, 1831, 1836, 4 vols., 4 to. The first two volumes contain the text, which is established on the collation of numerous manuscripts, but no use has been made of those older readings which may be derived from the Greek commentators on Aristotle. The third volume contains the Latin translations of the works of Aristotle. The fourth volume is entitled 'Scholia in Aristotelem. Collegit Christianus Augustus Brandis, edidit Academia Regia Borussica, 1836, 4 to.:' it contains excerpts from the commentaries on Aristotle, chiefly Greek, printed and unprinted, and is very useful for the understanding of the text. A fifth part, which is to be a continuation of the Scholia, is still expected.

" ... Further information on the editions of Aristotle, and of his several works, may be found in Buhle's edition, vol. i., p. 210, and company.; Hoffman's Lexicon Bibliographicum; and Aristotle, De Anima, by Trendelenburg, Jena, 1833, Preface, p. 17, and company."

For particulars respecting the life and philosophy of Aristotle, the reader is referred to the above mentioned authority, or to the article "Aristotle" in Smith's "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology."

BAGLIVI, GEORGE, an Italian physician, born in 1668, according to Haller at Ragusa, according to Nicholas Comnenus, at Lecce, a town of Otranto, in the kingdom of Naples, died at Rome in 1706, or 1707.

I. His "Dissertatio de Experimentis per infusoriam in vivis animalibus," was published with his work, "De Praxi Medica," 8 vo., Rome, 1696; 8 vo., Lyons, 1699; in English, 4 to., 1703; 8 vo., 1723.

II. "Specimen quatuor Librorum de Fibra Motrice et Morbosa" 4 to., Perousa, 1700; 4 to., Paris, 1700; 12 mo., Rome, 1702; 8 vo., Utrecht, 1703; 8 vo., London, 1703; 8 vo., Basle, 1703; Altorf, 1703.

III. "Dissertationes varii Argumenti," 8 vo., Leyden, 1707; 8 vo., 1710. The complete works of Baglivi were also published, viz., "Opera Omnia Medico practica et Anatomica," 4 to., Lyons, 1704, 1710, 1716, 1746; Paris, 1711; Antwerp, 1716; Basic, 1737; Leyden, 1744; Venice, 1738, 1764; and by Pinel, with notes, corrections, and a preface, 2 vols. 8 vo., 1788. Baglivi is esteemed the father of modern "solidism," which in general attributes the primary morbid affections of the body to the solids rather than to the fluids. It appears, however, that be did not intend to banish the humoral pathology (fluidism) from medicine, but to counterbalance it, and prevent its undue application. Some of the positions on which his solidism is grounded appear to be questionable as axioms of physics. Thus he says: "Solido major, quam fluido, vis inest et resistentia." (De Fibr. Motr., lib. i., cap. vii.) and again: "Evidenter patet corpus solidum continuum, partibus duris et resistentibus compositum esse magis aptum conservadi propagandique motum sibi impressum, quam moles fluida clausa intra canales, et composita minimis contiguis, mollibus," and company. (Ibid., cap. ix.) These statements are hardly countenanced by the tenor of modern art and science. In general the works of Baglivi display great powers of observation and grasp of mind. He discarded the hypotheses prevalent in his age, and betook himself to the writings of Hippocrates, "the Romulus of physicians, who speaks in the language of nature, and not of man." (De Praxi Medicoe, lib. i., cap. i., mon. iv.) He was also a diligent student and close follower of Lord Bacon, whose style of writing he imitated with great erectness in his works. And he coincided with Bacon in adopting the aphoristic manner of delivering the sciences (as Hippocrates had also done), in preference to the methodical. (Ibid., lib. i., cap. ix.) His observations on the dura mater as a moving power in the brain and the body, and the experiments which he instituted to bear out his views, occasionally brought him near the verge of that grand peculiarity of Swedenborg's theory, the alternate animation of the Grain.

BAHTHOLIN, THOMAS. (Animal Kingdom, Vol. II., p, 699.)

BELLINI, LAURENCE, an Italian physician and anatomist, born at Florence in 1643; died at the same place in 1704. "Opuscula Aliquot ad Archibald. Pitcairn, de Motu Cordis," 4 to., Pistoya, 1695; 4 to., Leyden, 1696, 1714, 1737.

BIDLOO, GODFREY. (Animal Kingdom, Vol. II., p. 600.)

BOERHAAVE, HERMANN. (Animal Kingdom, Vol. II., p. 600.) "Aphorismi de Cognoscendis et Curandis Morbis, in usum Doctrinae Domesticae," 12 mo., Leyden, 1709, 1716, 1728, 1734, 1742; 12 mo., Paris, 1720, 1726, 1728, 1747; 12 mo., Louvain, 1751; in English by J. Delacoste, M. D., 8 vo, London, 1716.

CALDESI, J. BAPTISTA, a native of Arezzo in Tuscany. His book on the Turtle and Tortoise, "Osservazioni anatomiche intorno alle Tartarughe marittime, d'Acqua dolce, et Terrestri;" 4 to., Florence, 1687, is described by Haller as an excellent work, entirely based upon facts: and the same authority says that it would not be easy to name another animal, of the anatomy of which we possess an equally good account.

COLUMBUS, REALDUS, an Italian anatomist of the 16th century, born at Cremona in the Duchy of Milan, died about 1677. His work, "De Re Anatomica libri xv.," was published at Venice, fol., 1869; 8 vo., Paris, 1662, 1172; 8 vo., Frankfort, 1590, 1593, 1699 (the two latter editions enriched with anatomical observations by J. Posthius); also 8 vo., Leyden, 1667. Realdus Columbus was a pupil of Vesslius, and according to Haller was among the first who described the alternate dilatation and constriction of the brain; but which he says are coincident with the motions of the heart.

EUSTACHIUS, BARTHOLOMAEUS. (Animal Kingdom, Vol. IL, p. 601.)

FANTONI, JOHN. (Animal Kingdom,V01. II., p. 602.) His Epistle to Pacchioni, which is so often quoted by Swedenborg in the present work, is printed in the various editions of Pacchioni's "Opera:" in the Translation we have made use of Ed. 4, Rome, 1741. See Pacchioni.

GROTIUS, HUGO, or HUGO DE GROOT, one of the most celebrated of Dutch writers, born at Delft in Holland in 1583, died at Restock in Mecklenburg in 1645. His work, "De Veritate Religionis Christianae," was published at Leyden, 8 vo., 1627 and 1629: with the author's Notes, 8 vo., Paris, 1640; 12 mo., Leyden, 1640; Paris, 1660; with an arabic version by Pocock, 8 vo., Oxford, 1660; 12 mo., 1678; 12 mo., Amsterdam, 1662, 1669; 8 vo., Ibid., Elzevir, 1674; also 8 vo., 1709; 2 vols. 8 vo., Jena, 1726. This work has been translated into nearly all the European languages, as well as into arabic and Persian: and many times into English, in which it has gone through numerous editions.

GULIELMINUS, DOMINICUS (GUGLIELMINI DOMINICO). An Italian writer on mathematics end medicine, born at Bologna in 1665, died at Padua in 1710. "De Sanguinis Natura et Constitione exercitatio physico-medica," 8 vo., Venice, 1701; 8 vo., Utrecht, 1704: also in the author's "Opera Omnia," 2 vols. Ho., Geneva, 1719 and 1740, edited by Morgagni, who appended to his edition an account of the author's life.

HARVEY, WILLIAM, an English physician, and the discoverer of the circulation of the blood, born at Folkstone, in Kent, in 1578, died in 1658.

I. "Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus," 4 to., Frankfort, 1628; 4 to., Leyden, 1639 and 1647; 12 mo., Padua, 1643; fol., Amsterdam, 1645; 4 to., Leyden, 1647; 12 mo., Rotterdam, 1648, 1661, and 1671; fol., Geneva, 1685; 12 mo., Glasgow, 1751, and in Manget's "Bibliotheca Anatomica." In English, 8 vo., London, 1653.

II. "Exercitationes de Generatione Animalium," and company., 4 to., London, 1651; 12 rno., Amsterdam, 1651 and 1662; 12 mo., Padua, 1666; 12 mo., the Hague, 1680; and in Manget's "Bibliotheca Anatomica." In English, 8 vo., London, 1683.

III. "Opera Omnia," 2 vols. 4 to., Leyden, 1737: best edition, by the London College of Physicians, with Life of the Author in Latin, by Dr. Lawrence, 2 vols. 4 to., London, 1766. In speaking of Harvey, Haller observes, that "out of that very England, in which hitherto anatomy had scarcely an existence, a new light of the art arose, whose name is only second in medicine to that of Hippocrates."

HEISTER, LAURENCE. (Animal Kingdom, Vol. II., p. 602.)

LANCISI, JOANNES MARIA. (Animal Kingdom, Vol. II., p. 603.) His "Epistola de Gangliis Nervorum" was published with Morgagni's "Adversaria Anatomica V." according to Haller, Lancisi maintains that the ganglia serve as cerebella to the voluntary motions.

LEEUWENHOEK, ANTONY VON. (Animal Kingdom, Vol. II., p. 603.)

LITTRE, ALEXIS, a French anatomist, born at Cordes in 1658, died in 1725. Littre is the author of no separate work, although he was a laborious cultivator of the sciences, and his whole life was absorbed in their pursuit. His papers were published at intervals in the "Hist. de l'Acad. Roy. des Sciences de Paris," from 1691, but principally from 1700 to 1720. Those on the foetus and the foetal circulation are contained in the above Transactions for the years 1700, 1701, 1709.

LOWER, RICHARD, an English physician and anatomist, born in Cornwall in the early part of the 17th century, died in 1690 or 1691. His "Tractatus de Corde, item de Motu et Colore Sanguinis, et chyli in eum transitu," was published in London, 8 vo., 1669, and again in 1680; 8 vo., Amsterdam and Leyden, 1708, 1722, 1728, 1740, 1749; and in Manget's "Bibliotheca Anatomica." This is the author's chief work.

MALPIGHI, MARCELLUS. (Animal Kingdom, Vol. II., p. 604.) "Appendix De Ovo Incubate," Bologna, 1672; London, ; and in the author's "Opera Omnia." Haller states that the descriptions in this tract are somewhat more accurate than those in its predecessor, "De Formations pulli in ovo," and company. (See a note in the Economy of the Animal Kingdom, Vol. I., p. 209.)

MAGNET, JOHN JAMES. (Animal Kingdom, Vol. II., p.604.) Manget's "Theatrum Anatomicum" and "Bibliotheca Anatomica" assume an importance for the translators of Swedenborg's physiological works and manuscripts, from the fact that the latter has often borrowed his citations of the anatomists from these compilations, and not from the original sources. And this accounts for certain interpolations, omissions, and company, with which Swedenborg appeared to be chargeable. It is to be observed that Manget's works are not remarkable for correctness.

MERY, JOHN, a French surgeon and anatomist, born at Vatan in 1645, died in 1722. "Nouveau Systems de la Circulation du sang par le trou ovale dens le fetus humain, avec les responses aux objections de MM. Duverney, Tauvry, Verheyen, Sylvestre, et Bussiere." 12 mo., Paris, 1700.

MORGAGNI, JOHN BAPTISTA. (Animal Kingdom, Vol. II., p. 604.)

MUNNICKS, JOHN, a Dutch physician and anatomist, born at Utrecht in 1662, died in 1711. "De Re Antomica liber," 8 vo., Utrecht, 1697; in Dutch, Amsterdam, 1740. This is a short but well written work, and contains many original observations.

NEEDHAM, WALTER, an English physician, died in 1691. "Disquisitio Anatomica de Formato Foetu," 8 vo., London, 1667; 12 mo., Amsterdam, 1668; and in Manget's " Bibliotheca Anatomica."

NUCK, ANTONY. (Animal Kingdom, Vol. II., p. 605.) "Observationes et Experiments Chirurgica," 8 vo., Leyden, 1692, 1696, 1714, 1733; 8 vo., Jena, 1698; with his "Sialographia" and "Adenographia," 12 mo., Lyons, 1722; and in his "Opera Omnia," 2 vols., Leyden, 1733.

PACCHIONI, ANTONY, an Italian physician, born at Reggio, in the Duchy of Modena, in 1664, died at Rome in 1726. His works consist of a number of short dissertations, principally upon the anatomy and physiology of the dura mater. These were collected and published; viz., "Opera," Ed. 4, 4 to., Rome, 1741.

REVERHORST, MAURICE VAN. (Animal Kingdom, Vol. II., p. 606.)

RIDLEY, HENRY, an English anatomist.

I. "The Anatomy of the Brain, containing its mechanism and physiology," 8 vo., London, 1695; in Latin, by M. E. Ettmuller, and (1706) in the L'Eph. Net. Our.," dec. iii., app.; and in Manget's "Bibliotheca Anatomica;" also at Leyden, 8 vo., 1725, under the title, "Anatomia Cerebri complectens ejus mechanismum et physiologism."

II. There is a paper of Ridley's in the "Philosophical Transactions," n. 287, detailing a case of vivisection, in which the systolic motion of the brain was observed to be continued and even increased after the division of the dura mater.

RUYSCH, FREDERIC. (Animal Kingdom, Vol. II., p. 605.)

STENO, NICHOLAS, a celebrated Danish anatomist, born at Copenhagen in 1638, died at Swerin, in the Duchy of Mecklenburg, in 1686. Haller speaks very favorably of Steno's paper in T. Bartholin's "Acta Hafniensia," detailing his experiments in living animals upon the motion of the heart, and styles the experiments, "Optima et utilissima." This paper was reprinted in Manget's "Bibliotheca Anatomica." Steno was pupil to Bartholin and great uncle to Winslow. In 1669 he embraced the Catholic religion, and towards the close of his life became an ecclesiastic and missionary, and was made a bishop by the Pope.

SWAMMERDAM, JOHN (Animal Kingdom, Vol. II., p. 606.)

VALLISNERI, ANTONIO, "Considerazioni ed Esperienze intoro al creduto cervello di Bue impierito, vivente ancor l'animale, presentato dal' Sig. Verney all' Academia Real di Parigi," Padua, 1710.

VALSALVA, ANTONY MARIA, an Italian physician and anatomist, born at Imola, in Romagna, in 1666, died at Bologna in 1723. His work, "De Aure Humana," was published at Bologna, 4 to., 1704; 4 to., Utrecht, 1707; and Ed. 4, "A. M. Valsalvae Opera, hoc est, de Aure Humana et Dissertationes Anatomicae, cum additionibus J. B. Morgagni," 4 to., Venice, 1740; 4 to., Utrecht, 1707, 1717; Geneva, 1716. Haller describes Valsalva as an unwearied and laborious inquirer.

VERHEYEN, PHILIP. (Animal Kingdom, Vol. II., p. 606.)

VIEUSSENS, RAYMOND. (Ibid., p. 607.)

WEPFER, JOHN JAMES, a Swiss physician, born at Schaffhansen in 1620, died in 1695.

I. "Observationes Anatomicae ex cadaveribus eorum quos sustuilit apoplexia, cum exercitatione de ejus loco adfecto," 8 vo., Schaffhausen, 1668, 1676 (the latter edition enlarged by new cases); 8 vo., Amsterdam, 1681, 1724 (the latter edition again enriched with eleven new cases); 8 vo., Leyden, 1734; Venice, 1759.

II. "Historia Anatomica de puella sine Cerebro nata," 8 vo., Schaffhausen, 1665; and in "Eph. Nat. Cur.," dec. i., an. 8., obs. 129; reprinted also in Magnet's "Theatrum Anatomicum." According to Haller, Wepfer stands in the first rank as an inquirer in the whole circle of the medical sciences. And Eloy says, that he was not of the number of those anatomists who have no other power than their eyes; but that he possessed the skill to fathom the causes of things, and to elicit truths from phenomena.

WILLIS, THOMAS. (Animal Kingdom, Vol. II., p. 607.)

WINSLOW, JACQUES BENIGNE. (Ibid., p. 608.)

WOLFF, WOLF, or WOLFIUS, CHRISTIAN, a German philosopher, born at Breslau in Silesia in 1679, died at Halle in Saxony in 1784.

I. "Philosophia prima sive Ontologia, methodo scientifica pertractata, qua omnis cognitionis humanae explicantur," Ed. 2, 4 to., Frankfort end Leipsic, 1736.

II. "Cosmologia generalis, methodo scientifica pertractata, qua ad solidam, inprimis Dei atque naturae, cognitionem via sternitur," 4 to., Frankfort and Leipsic, 1731, Ed. 2, 1737.

III. "Psychologia Rationalis: qua ea, quae de Anima Humana in dubia experientiae fide innotescunt, per essentiam et naturam animae explicantur," 4 to., Frankfort, 1734 and 1740. Swedenborg became acquainted with the "Ontology" and "Cosmology" of Wolff after writing his "Principia," in the last paragraph of which he says, that he had formed and written his theory two years before he saw those works; but that they greatly confirmed him in it; and he admits important obligations to them in the revision of his Treatise; adding that whoever will take the pains to compare his work with those of Wolff, will see that his special principles, in their application to the world and the series of which it consists, are almost exactly coincident with the metaphysical and general axioms of Wolff. And again he says in one of his posthumous works: " July 10, 1733, ... I have seen the 'General Cosmology' of Wolff, who aims to establish the nature of the elements on metaphysical principles alone; this work rests upon very sound foundations. (Itinerarium: sectio prima, p. 21, 8 vo., Tobingen, 1840.) And in a Manuscript preserved in the Royal Academy of Sciences of Stockholm, we find the following, which appears to be a draught of the paragraph before alluded to, but containing additional particulars:

"Comparison of the 'Ontology' and 'General Cosmology' of Christian Wolff, with my 'Principia.'

"I wish to institute a comparison between my 'Principia' and the rules of metaphysics, with a view of enabling me in some measure to judge of the foundations upon which my philosophy and theory repose; and whether their parts are geometrically and metaphysically true, or the contrary. There is no better source for this test, then the 'Cosmology' of the learned Christian Wolff, who may justly be styled a true philosopher, since he has drawn out the principles of a true philosophy with unwearied care, scrutiny, end elaboration, and teaches them metaphysically and in the most regular order, and at the same time scientifically and by experiment. Let us see then whether there be consent between us, or any dissent. In rational philosophy Wolff treats admirably of the mode of philosophizing. 'The liberty of philosophizing,' says he, 'should be allowed to those who philosophize in a philosophical manner; and from this concession, no danger need be apprehended either for religion, virtue, or the state.' again he says: 'Without liberty in philosophy, progress in knowledge is impossible.' And further: 'a place must be granted in philosophy to philosophical hypotheses, inasmuch as they prepare the way for discovering the real truth.' And again: 'If any one philosophize in a philosophical manner, he has no need to refute opposite opinions.'"

The Biographers of Swedenborg state that he corresponded with Christian Wolff. It is certain that much of the terminology of Wolff is to be found in the "Economy" and "Animal Kingdom;" and perhaps an investigation of Wolff's books would in some cases conduct us to approximate definitions of Swedenborg's terms.